The centenary of World War
One has arrived and despite pressure from the EU, tensions in the Balkans are
still visible. This article will investigate the conditions of 100 years ago
with the assumption that WWI was a war over the distribution of the lands of
the Ottoman Empire and that the Balkan Wars have triggered the Great War.
Anatolia had always been significant for Christian states being the land of
mythological gods and the route of St. Paul’s missionary journeys. Imperialist
states wanted to take over the geographic position and fertile lands of Turkey,
especially the Straits.
The Racconigi Treaty
signed between Russia and Italy on the 24th of October 1909 was intended
to safeguard mutual interests over the Straits and Tripoli. The agreement laid
the way for the Italian occupation of Tripoli, Derne, Tobruq and Benghazi on
the 28th of September 1911 under the pretext of protecting the maltreated
Italian population. Tripoli, which was the last remaining Ottoman territory in
Africa was attractive due to its proximity to Italy. It could also open up
Africa to Italian expansion. In the mid-nineteenth century Italy, like Germany,
has become a strong state. However, being weaker than other imperialist states,
it had to take territory away from weaker states.
Russian diplomat Count
Alexander Petrovich Izvolski, who signed the Racconigi Treaty, played an
important role in his country’s orientation towards the Balkans. The diplomat
had secured a verbal agreement on the 15th of September 1908 in Moravia
between Russia and Austria to allow Russian ships to be able to sail through
the Turkish Straits. In return Russia would support Austria’s annexation of
Bosnia, which took place on the 7th of October 1908. Austria did not
provide the support it had promised Russia once it had annexed Bosnia.
Austria’s annexation of
Bosnia is the most important factor which upset European balances. This event
triggered the Balkan Wars.
A geography which houses
so many different nations as the Balkans had witnessed increased nationalism
following the French Revolution of 1789. The Ottoman State could not fight in
the Tripoli and Benghazi as it was already challenged by rebellions in the
Balkans. Therefore it asked great powers to arbitrate faced with Italian invasion.
However, once these states declared neutrality, the Ottomans were forced to
fight the Italians. There were few Ottoman troops in Tripoli and it was ill
prepared due to the uprisings in the Balkans. British neutrality in Egypt
severed land connections. The Ottoman navy was inadequate and naval support
could not be secured. Nevertheless some staff officers including Mustafa Kemal
and Enver made it to Tripoli under difficult conditions. The Italian advance
was successfully resisted with limited means and the Italians were challenged
by the defence. The Ottoman government also imposed an economic embargo on
Italy at the time. However, the Italians then turned towards the Mediterranean
and invaded Rhodes and the Twelve Islands on the 17th of May 1912.
The men and equipment
transferred from the Balkans to the Italian front weakened the Ottomans in the
Balkans. Nationalism and separatism in the Balkans grew.
The Usi Treaty signed on
the 18th of October 1912 ended the Ottoman-Italian War. The Italians
evacuated Tripoli and Benghazi. Italy returned the Twelve Islands to the
Ottomans but agreed to keep them until the end of the newly beginning Balkan
War against a possible Greek invasion. Although the sultan would have a
representative in Tripoli, the final piece of African land under Ottoman
control was thus lost. As a result the Italians de facto settled in the Aegean,
North Africa became the scene of Italian nationalism and the balance of power
in the Eastern Mediterranean was disrupted.
Another important factor
which contributed to the Balkan War was the courage given the rebels by the
Tripoli War. It was also influenced by the growing recognition of the weakness
of the Ottoman State and its inability to protect its lands. The Balkan War is
separated into the First Balkan War and the second.
Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece
and Montenegro began the First Balkan War against the Ottoman State on the
8th of October 1912. The competition between The Party of Unity and
Progress and the Party of Freedom and Harmony caused political decision making
in the Ottoman State to be unhealthy at the time. Despite not being a party to
the war, Russia’s role as patron and supporter is very important. The Ottomans
had discharged 200 divisions (approximately 75,000 men) just before the start
of the war, which caused great hardship in the Balkans. With the Treaty of
London signed in May 1913, the First Balkan War came to an end; Crete became a
part of Greece, Albania was forced to declare independence under risk of other
Balkan states and Macedonia was completely occupied.
The division of last piece
of Ottoman land in the Balkans between Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia is called
the “Macedonian Issue”. In this division the Aegean Macedonia passed over to
Greece, the Pirin Macedonia assed over to Bulgaria and the Vardar Macedonia
passed over to Serbia. Despite small changes during WWI, the former borders
were recognised at the end of the war.
Following this
humiliation, the Ottomans retreated to the border known as the “Midye-Enez
line” which left Edirne and Kırklareli out of Ottoman control.
Bulgaria grew stronger out
of the war, thanks to the support given by Russia, the patron of Panslavism.
This drew the ire of the other countries in the alliance who joined with
Romania to fight Bulgaria without attacking the Ottoman State. With the Treaty
of Bucharest, which ended this war on the 10th of August 1913, Dobruca
became a part of Romania and Kavala became a part of Greece. With weakening
Bulgaria moving troops from its eastern front, the Ottoman forces could advance
beyond the Midye-Enez line and reclaim its former borders without fighting.
Between 1812 and 1918 there have been five agreements called the Treaty of
Bucharest. This particular one is the third.
Following the Second
Balkan War the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria signed the Treaty of
Istanbul according to which Edirne, Kırklareli and Dimetoka remained Ottoman
while Dedeagac and Kavala became Bulgarian. The Meric River was taken to form
the border. On the 14th of November 1913, the Treaty of Athens was signed
with Greece and Greece got Crete, Thessaloniki and Yanya. Serbia and Montenegro
thus no longer shared a border with the Ottoman Empire.
After the Balkan War,
there was unrest among allied European states. The strong position of imperial
Britain and France had long been a concern for Germany. Meanwhile, rivalry
between Catholics and Protestants was also important. That Prussia should beat
Austria and unite Germany made the country the leading industrial and manpower
country on the continent. Germans were encouraged by then superpower Britain’s
lack of land contact with Continental Europe.
The German Empire which
was established on the 18th of January 1871 with the Treaty of Versailles
gathered all German principalities except for Austria under it and started
establishing colonies from 1884 onwards. By 1914 it had become on par or even
more advanced than Britain, France and Russia economically and militarily. The
most important political factor in Europe between 1871 and 1914 was rivalry
between France and Germany.
In a world which had many
reasons for a world war, the eventual trigger was the assassination of Franz
Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo on the 28th of June
1914 by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. With the assassination the sole
remaining heir of the Habsburg dynasty was killed and the only factor uniting
Austria and Hungary collapsed.
In this process, Austria
relied on German support if needed and delivered a diplomatic note to Serbia
that was so tough in its terms that no independent state could accept it.
Serbia tried to avoid the issue. On the 28th of July 1914 Austria declared
on Serbia and besieged Belgrade.
On the 31st of July
Russia called general mobilisation. Germany had previously called mobilisation
in Russia a casus belli. Germany declared war on Russia on the 1st of
August, declared on France on the 3rd of August and attacked Belgium,
which had denied it right of passage on the 4th of August 1914. Britain
declared war on Germany and the WWI begun.
Among the events leading
to the WWI, the weakness of the Ottomans in Tripoli and the Balkans played a
major role. These wars have triggered new wars in Germany. The Ottoman State
would side with Germany against the Allies in the WWI and the process would
eventually lead to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey following the
War of Independence.
